Unrelated to the robbery, but not long after, an associate murdered Jessie. Faced with the loss of so many of the gang’s members, Frank surrendered to authorities. The governor of Missouri later pardoned Frank James, and he escaped punishment for his criminal acts.

Moving from the notorious and infamous to those with more in common with gangs today, a 1927 study of street gangs in Chicago6 identified 1,313 active gangs in the city at that time. The findings have a common thread that links these historical groups to present-day gang members. For example, many of those who formed or joined gangs felt disenfranchised by society. Many members of Forty Thieves, comprised of recently arrived immigrants, had problems adjusting to a new culture and experienced prejudice due to their immigrant status and ethnicity. In India, the gang’s members had to live closely together to avoid arrest. In time, the rest of society would not accept anyone tied to the gang. Thus, they had to remain within the group to support themselves. Pirates often were seamen who had been shanghaied, escaped from authorities, or were estranged in some manner from a normal lifestyle. The James’ brothers and their support system of friends and relatives felt strong resentment toward established authority because of their wartime experiences. More examples exist, but the feeling of estrangement exhibited by these groups represents an important theme. These same feelings often occur in modern gangs. The gang often exists prior to entering into any type of profit-making criminal activity. The opportunity to make money from crime comes about because the gang exists. The gang, with the exception of some drug gangs, does not normally form to make money.

The world of outlaw motorcycle gangs illustrates how the gang came first and then the criminal actions. Veterans returning from World War II formed motorcycle clubs. While most were social groups, a few, such as the Hell’s Angels, began to engage in criminal activities. As the Angels grew in power and influence, rival gangs, such as the Pagans, Banditos, and the Outlaws, formed in other parts of the nation. Because of their organization, the motorcycle gangs controlled certain types of criminal activity within their areas of dominance. Bikers, by their bylaws, actions, and appearance, seek to force their members to remain outside the mainstream of society. In doing so, the leadership bonds the membership closer together as the group mentality becomes one of “us versus them.”

Ethnic gangs represent another illustration of gangs forming before any criminal activity takes place. Hispanic gangs grew in strength and influence following the Zoot Suit Riots of 1943. In California, white, off-duty military personnel attacked Hispanic males who they felt were benefitting from the war while evading the dangers of combat. The physical danger from the rioters, coupled with other acts of prejudice and discrimination, caused the Latino community to band together more tightly. The criminal element, usually present in every group of people, then took over some of the gangs to further unlawful enterprises.

Other ethnic groups, including Asians, Italians, Jews, Jamaicans, and many others, formed gangs because they too had to deal with prejudice and discrimination, which alienated them from mainstream society. The organizations they formed had varying degrees of sophistication. Many of the groups faded away as the ethnic groups assimilated into mainstream culture. A lawful alternative for those that continued to exist was the transition into social or fraternal organizations, promoting cultural identity and positive civic actions. A small percentage mutated into criminal enterprises, which the media and entertainment industry often have romanticized. The extreme example of this genre being the Italian Mafia, portrayed in a positive or humorous fashion in numerous movies, television programs, advertising commercials, and even news reports. The trend continues with the influx of Russian immigrants into the United States. A small percentage of these new arrivals are criminals and gang members, dubbed the “Russian Mafia” by the popular media. In short, the formula for creating and maintaining gangs is not a new concept and is ongoing.